Language Adquisition

The Thirteenth Month:

 
-Vocabulary of 3 - 4 words in addition to "mama"and "dada".
-Say "tata"for thank you.
-Gives toy on request or gesture.
-Looks in appropiate place when asked. "where is daddy? -ball,- kitty"etc?
-May use sounds to indicate specific objects that are understood by the parents.
-Responds to own name.
-Jabbers with expresions.
-Understands gestures.
-Obeys comand: "Give it to me"
-Attempts new words.
-Has begun to understand the name of people, objects, and animals that are important to him.
-Will listen for 3 minutes or so to rhymes and jingles.
-Comes when beckoned.
-Has learned to respond to speech by acts.
-Indicates wants other than by crying.

The Fourteenth Month: 

-Likes rhymes and jingles.
-Indicates wants in some other way than by crying.
-Is putting all kinds of sounds together.
-Brings coat to indicate desire to be taken out.
-May bring parent a cd to have it played.
-Tries hard to make self understood.
-Amuses self with vocal play.
-Attempts to say any word he or she hears.
-Knows through words or signs names of objects she or he uses: chair, cup, teddy bear, kitty, doll etc.
-Knows names of family members.
-Speaking vocabulary of 3 - 5 words.
-Repeats sounds of words without indication of understanding the meaning.

The Fifteenth Month:

 -Speaking vocabulary of 4 - 6 words including names.
-May also say "there"and "bye-bye".
-Uses jargon and gestures.
-Says "ta-ta"or equivalent for thank you.
-Points to shoes or clothes on command.
-Vocalizes and gestures to indicate wants.
-Points to familliar persons, toys and animals on request.
-Follows simple commands: "Give me the ball", "Get the teddy bear"etc.
-Combines jargon and words in conversation.
-Asks for objects by pointing.
-Understands such directions as "no", "come", "show me", "look".
-Delights in dogs and often says "bow-wow".
-Recognizes names of major body parts.
-Identifies pictures of a few named objects or the objects themselves by pointing or vocalizing.
-Can respond to a few key words and phrases.
-Points to one named body part.

The Sixteenth Month:
-Uses 6 - 7 clear words.
-Brings a familiar object from another room upon request.
-Points and gestures to indicate desires and call attention to events.
-Responds to "Give me that"when accompanied by gestures.
Indicates wants assertively; will use one word to make want known; e.g "Üp".
-Combines 2 different words.
-Points to one named body part.
-Most toddlers at this age do no like having a whole story read to them; they prefer to pick out and point to pictures or listen to adult talk about pictures.
-Responds to verbal directions, but must still be managed mostly by actions.
-Interested in watching children's shows on tv, cartoons and singing commercials.

The Seventeenth Month:
-Long, babbled conversations with some clear words.
-Enjoys picture books.
-Points to one named body part.
-Says 6 words in addition to "Mama"and "dada".
-Ability to imitate words become more precise.
-Words used rather than gestures to express some wants and needs.
-Understands more words than able to say, but even this understanding is extremely limited.
-Combines 2 different words.
-Extensive vocalization and echoing.

The Eighteeth Month:
-Follows one step direction.
-Can point to own body part; hair, eyes, nose, mouth, on request.
-Asks for some wants by naming object; milk, cookie etc.
-Attempts to sign.
-Refers to self by name.
-Gets coat or hat and says "bye bye".
-Enjoys songs as öld Mc Donald had a farm".
-Imitates simple sounds on request.
-Identifies objects by pointing.
-Names or points to familiar pictures in a book.
-Speaking vocabulary of about 10 words, including names.
-Understands simple questions.
-Uses 2 word phrases, "telegraphic" versions of adult sentence (and, at, the, are lacking)
-Favorite words may be "all gone" "thank you" "bye bye" öh my" All of which register completions.
-May hum spontaneously.
-Is now on the threshold of speech.
-"No"is chief word.
-Chatters in imitation of conversation, verbally or nonverbally.
-Enjoys playing the question - and- answer game with parent.

The Nineteenth Month:
-Touches 3 or more body parts or items of clothing on command.
-Still much bubbling, but now of several syllabes with intricate entonations.
-Speaking vocabulary of more than 10 words but less than 50.
-A favourite game is attaching a name to a thing (labeling)
likes to be read to.
-Responds appropriately to requests for bodily action.
-Points to most pictures of familiar objects named by parents.
-Uses speech as a means of securing action from another person, usually the mother.
-Beginning to respond to speech by speech; the remark of another person evokes his or her spoken response.
-Combines 2 different words.
-Responds to "Where is your nose?" by correctly indicating nose; also to "Where are your eyes?".

The Twentieth Month:-Speaking vocabulary of 12, 15, or more words.
-Is learning to label actions or qualities: up when he or she wants to be picked up, or ON when she or he wants the light on.
-Enjoys hearing nursery rhymes.
-Attempts to talk in sentences, combines 2 different words.
-Points to several named body parts.
-Constantly asks "What is that?"is discovering that everything has a name.
-Is beginning to use rudimentary questioning as a substitute for physical, nonlinguistic behavior.
-Enjoys playing a simple lotto game with parent.

The Twenty First Month:-Speaking vocabulary of 20 or more words.
-Joins 2 words ("All gone"etc.)
-Uses word combinations.
-Echoes 2 or more last words.
-Names 3 pictures of common objects.
-Listens to short rhymes with interesting sounds, especially when they are accompanied by actions or pictures.
-Likes to have lilting rhymes sung.
-Enjoys tactile books.
-Needs supervision while looking at books because often tears them at this age.
-Spontaneous humming or singing of syllabes.
-Imitates 2 or 3 word sentence.
-Understands some personal pronouns; can distinguish "Give it to her", "Give it to him".
-Tries to follow directions.
-Can point to 5 body parts.

The Twenty Second Month:
-Can point to 5 body parts of self or doll.
-Asks for things at table by name.
-Enjoys listening to simple stories.
-Uses simple 1 or 2 words questions to secure the names of objects or persons in his or her enviroment.
-Combines 2 words in speech.
-In response to "where is your month?"correctly indicates either by pointing to or opening mouth.
-Is interested in sound and repetition (as in book, Ask Mr. Bear)
-Calls all women and men mommies and daddies.
-Echoes adults words and inflections.

The Twenty Third Month:
-Speaking vocabulary of 20 clear words.
-Ask for food when hungry and water when thirsty.
-Enjoys hearing rhymes in Mother Goose book, etc.
-Is substituting words for some physical acts.
-Knows 3 to 5 body parts.
-Understand more words than able to use.
-Has learned to form some sentences of 2 words, but still relies on gestures, facial expressions, and total body movement, as well as grunts, squeals, and shrieks for communication.
-Answer "What is your name"? "What does the doggy say?" "What does the kitty say?".
-Can name familiar objects; ball, car, chair, bed, baby etc.
-Increase in communicative behavior and interest in language.
-Discards jargon.

The Twenty Four Month: 

-Can name almost everything she or he has daily contact with at home or on walks.
-Can associate names with most familiar objects.
-Understand and ask for "another", "more".
-Shows and imitates names for hair, hands, feet, nose, eyes, mouth, shoes.
-Actively imitates words.
-Expressive vocabulary of 50 or more words.
- Listens to and enjoys simple stories.
-Responds to: "Show me a dog" "Show me a hat" etc.
-Names 3 or more pictures in a book.
-Echoes adult's words and inflections.
-Is beginning to discover that everything has a name.
-May be able to give first and last names. 

CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Learn about the physical, intellectual, social and emotional development of elementary-age children.

Child development refers to the dividbiological and psychological changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of adolescence, as the inual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy. Because these developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are usually included as part of the study of child development. Related terms include developmental psychology, referring to development throughout the lifespan, and pediatrics, the branch of medicine relating to the care of children. Developmental change may occur as a result of genetically-controlled processes known as maturation, or as a result of environmental factors and learning, but most commonly involves an interaction between the two.

Some age-related development periods and examples of defined intervals are: newborn (ages 0–1 month); infant (ages 1 month – 1 year); toddler (ages 1–3 years); preschooler (ages 4–6years); school-aged child (ages 6–13 years); adolescent (ages 13–20). However, organizations like Zero to Three and the World Association for Infant Mental Health use the term infant as a broad category, including children from birth to age 3, a logical decision considering that the Latin derivation of the word infant refers to those who have no speech.

The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational development of children. Increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, with specific regard to practice that promotes development within the school system. In addition there are also some theories that seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child development.

General Developmental Sequence Toddler through Preschool

Age 2

Physical Development
Walks well, goes up and down steps alone, runs, seats self on chair, becoming independent in toileting, uses spoon and fork, imitates circular stroke, turns pages singly, kicks ball, attempts to dress self, builds tower of six cubes.

Emotional Development
Very Self-centered, just beginning a sense of personal identity and belongings, possessive, often negative, often frustrated, no ability to choose between alternatives, enjoys physical affection, resistive to change, becoming independent, more responsive to humor and distraction than discipline or reason.

 Social Development
Solitary play, dependent on adult guidance, plays with dolls, refers to self by name, socially very immature, little concept of others as "people." May respond to simple direction.

Intellectual Development
Says words, phrases and simple sentences, 272 words, understands simple directions, identifies simple pictures, likes to look at books, short attention span, avoids simple hazards, can do simple form board. 

Physical Development
Runs well, marches, stands on one foot briefly, rides tricycle, imitates cross, feeds self well, puts on shoes and stockings, unbuttons and buttons, build tower of 10 cubes. Pours from pitcher.

Emotional Development
Likes to conform, easy going attitude, not so resistive to change, more secure, greater sense of personal identity, beginning to be adventuresome, enjoys music.

Age 3

Social Development
Parallel play, enjoys being by others, takes turns, knows if he is a boy or girl, enjoys brief group activities requiring no skill, likes to "help" in small ways--responds to verbal guidance.

Intellectual Development
Says short sentences, 896 words, great growth in communication, tells simple stories, uses words as tools of thought, wants to understand environment, answers questions, imaginative, may recite few nursery rhymes

Physical Development
Skips on one foot, draws "Man", cuts with scissors (not well), can wash and dry face, dress self except ties, standing broad jump, throws ball overhand, high motor drive.

Emotional Development
Seems sure of himself, out-of bounds behavior, often negative, may be defiant, seems to be testing himself out, needs controlled freedom. Age 4

Age 4

Social Development
Cooperative play, enjoys other children's company, highly social, may play loosely organized group games - tag, duck-duck-goose, talkative, versatile.

Intellectual Development
Uses complete sentences, 1540 words, asks endless questions, learning to generalize, highly imaginative, dramatic, can draw recognizable simple objects. 

Physical Development
Hops and skips, dresses without help, good balance and smoother muscle action, skates, rides wagon and scooter, prints simple letters, handedness established, ties shoes, girls small muscle development about 1 year ahead of boys.

Emotional Development
Self-assured, stable, well-adjusted, home-centered, likes to associate with mother, capable, of some self-criticism, enjoys responsibility. Likes to follow the rules.

Age 5

Social Development
Highly cooperative play, has special "friends", highly organized, enjoys simple table games requiring turns and observing rules, "school", feels pride clothes and accomplishments, eager to carry out some responsibility.

Intellectual Development
2,072 words, tells long tales, carries out direction well, reads own name, counts to 10, asks meaning of words, knows colors, beginning to know difference between fact and fiction-lying, interested in environment, city, stores, etc. 

Early stimulation of babies and child development

Early stimulation helps children's development

Integrating early psychosocial stimulation of undernourished children into primary care may improve their development. Powell and colleagues randomized 139 undernourished children and their mothers in Jamaica to an intervention consisting of a weekly session discussing parenting issues and play activities for one year, or to standard care. Children in the intervention group had better developmental quotients, hearing and speech, hand and eye coordination, and scores on a performance scale than children in the control group; their mothers had gained a better knowledge of childrearing practices.

Early stimulation and child development

Large numbers of disadvantaged children in low- and middle-income countries do not attain their developmental potential.  In this issue of the journal, Barros et al. report on the development of a birth cohort at the age of 2 years in Pelotas, Brazil, and demonstrate the importance of child stimulation, particularly for children whose mothers have less education. One of their main conclusions is that interventions to provide cognitive stimulation for disadvantaged children need to be designed. As the authors acknowledge, the evidence is already strong from several efficacy trials and some programme evaluations that both home visiting and centre-based strategies benefit children's development and that wide-ranging benefits continue into adolescence and adulthood.  

The need now is for strategies to implement the interventions on a larger scale and for evaluations of their effectiveness. Approaches include the integration of stimulation activities into existing services, such as primary health-care services, by training health workers already employed to include stimulation as part of their regular activities. The WHO Care for Development initiative attempts to increase knowledge and skills of mothers in promoting child development, by providing counselling to mothers on activities to promote development during routine visits by mothers and children to health providers. There are, however, few evaluations of the benefits that can be expected from this approach. It is likely that in addition to counselling, modelling and opportunities to practice behaviours are essential components of successful interventions. 

Barros et al. also demonstrate clearly that although stimulation benefited all children, benefits were greatest to children whose mothers had the least schooling (0–3 years). Stimulation interventions have been shown to be of greatest benefit to more disadvantaged children. Targeting of interventions to children at highest risk will likely be necessary both because of the greater benefit to these children and the resource constraints in many countries. As suggested by Barros et al., focusing on less-educated mothers is one approach. Other ways of identifying high-risk children could include those with known biological risks such as intra-uterine growth restriction and childhood under nutrition, and mothers with identifiable risks such as depression or brief screens of the home environment. Composite risk indicators may be most useful in determining children to be included for more intensive intervention such as home visits with supportive strategies such as clinic-based counselling for larger number of mothers and children. 

One of the challenges in monitoring progress in reducing the numbers of children whose development is affected and determining the effectiveness of large-scale policy interventions is that accepted methods for assessment of children's development are time consuming and require substantial training, and therefore development is not routinely assessed. Efforts at finding more rapid assessments include the use of milestones; for example, motor milestones have been included in the WHO growth charts. However, there is limited evidence that motor milestones predict later child outcomes. Another approach is to identify indicators in the child's home and family environment that can be used to identify children likely to be at developmental disadvantage. Maternal education and poverty have well-established associations with poor development. 

Nutritional risks such as stunting (height for age <−2 SD) before the age of 2 years and iron deficiency anaemia also predict short- and long-term cognitive and behavioural outcomes. Stimulation in the home is also an important proximal predictor of child development. The home observation for measurement of the environment (HOME) is the most well-established measure of the quality of the home environment and has been used in numerous countries.  

However, the HOME takes about an hour to administer and requires highly trained interviewers. Identification of briefer measures of stimulation that predict child development would be extremely useful. Barros et al. used a scale with only five yes/no items and demonstrated that this was associated with development. Both stimulation and development were assessed at the age of 2 years. Development of this scale is in an important initial step; however, the items in the scale are variable in the strength of the theoretical evidence for inclusion (for example, exposure to television at this age is often considered to be undesirable) and the items ‘watched television in the past week’ and ‘visited other people's homes in the past week’ had limited variability as the majority of children scored yes. Inclusion of the item taken to the park/playground may have been inappropriate since most of the families did not live near a park or playground.